Cradles of Civilization Reading

Cradles of Civilization: China
Introduction
China has an ancient tradition of historical study, but over the last few decades, entered a Golden Age
Recurring themes in history:
Us vs. them
Center vs. periphery
Attempts at unity vs. diversity
Physical and political isolation vs. cultural interplay
Efforts at modernization vs. traditional conservatism
Tracking the processes of changes in what now amounted to Chinese civilization

The land
A vast territory and huge geographic diversity
Two large zones:
Inner China: AKA China Proper – fertile and densely populated region within…
Outer China – large NW arc with mountains and deserts
Civilization arose in association with agriculture
Centers in agriculturally productive areas
River valleys and floodplains: fertile alluvial soil, irrigation, climate (long growing seasons, adequate rainfall, and warm), transportation

Outer China
China on a floor of highly metamorphosed rock
Tibetan mountain ranges
Mt Everest (10000m)
Plateau (3500m)
Alpine desert: too cold and too dry
Fertile lowland pockets (e.g. Lhasa)
Pastoral nomadism with yak
Tarim Desert
Inhospitable to agriculture
Dzungaria region
Better watered, with Illi River
In Xinjiang, Turfan Depression (200m below sea level)
Three great river valleys and plains
Huang (north)
Yangzi (central)
Xi (south)
Shorter, with delta near Guangzhou

Civilization rose around Huang and Yangzi
Qin (221-207 BC) and Han (206BC – AD220) conquered much of Outer China
Qing (1644-1911) reconquered these area again
For less than a century, some Mongols controlled parts of Outer China
Inner Mongolia
Long-grass steppe ideal for grazing
Served as the basis for pastoral nomadism (with sheep and goat)
Now mostly farmed
Became Chinese territory since the collapse of Mongol empire in 14C
with economic growth and infrastructure, Chinese farmers moved in and now outnumber Mongols
grazing economy now commercial (not nomadic): sell animal products
Northeast: AKA Manchuria
Bordered by mountain barriers
Linked to north China by Mountain Sea Gate, a narrow coastal plain
Historically served as the route of invasion and migration
Most areas too cold and too dry for farming; Liao River valley milder, and has fertile alluvial soil
Commercialized agricultural products: wheat and soybeans
Amur River marks the border with Russia
Yalu River and Changbai shan mark the border with Korea
Rich with coal, iron and petroleum

China Proper
Includes most of the agricultural land, majority of population and roots of civilization
Huang
Semi-arid climate river
deposit alluvial soil/silt
extend the coastline
e.g. Shandong used to be an island in the Yellow Sea
the “Sorrow of China”: seasonal fluctuations in volume and recurrent changes in its course lead to disastrous floods
Drowned people and land, and silting damaged and ruined irrigation works
On the other hand, silt deposits made the area the most fertile agricultural zone in china
Widespread deposition: river course and delta never stable
Yangzi River
The most important river system in China Proper
Half of Chinese people live in the basin
Especially the delta is densely settled (e.g. Nanjing, Shanghai)
Navigable tributaries:
useful for transportation & trade
Coupled with natural reservoirs (i.e. lakes), reduce flooding
Yangzi navigable for ocean-going ships
Dug gorges in Sichuan
Occasional disastrous flooding
Deforestration since 1949 increased the rates of flooding, erosion, etc
Not as heavily silt-laden as Huang
Delta very fertile, and heavily cultivated
Plains are extending seaward, thanks to silt deposition
Intricate navigable waterways link every settlement
Aided growth of commerce
e.g. shanghai is the largest, most populous and commercialized cities in modern china
xi river
lesser stream with restricted watershed
lacks major tributaries
basins mountainous and less productive
used for transport in its navigable lower half
Guangzhou in delta area

Divisions
Clear distinction between the mountainous south and level north
One of the few well-defined mountain ranges in China Proper; Qinling range from Gansu to Henan
Physical and cultural line between dry north and more productive south
Blocks cold northern wind and contributes to southern agriculture
North Hangzhou Bay: long sandy coast with shallow water, few good ports

Vs. south china has heavily indented coasts – natural harbours
From Tang, port cities engaged in extensive ocean commerce
Base of piracy in the countless smaller harbours – easy to hide from government forces
In Ming dynasty, huge expedition projects launched here
Accommodated fleets of oceangoing ships

The People
Chronology
Chinese state arose in Huang’s flood plain (modern Henan)
Shang dynasty:
Built successive capitals in modern Luoyang, Zhengzhou, and Anyang
In 1050BC, fell to slave revolt coupled with Zhou (feudal dependency which was supposed to guard shang’s western frontiers)
Zhou dynasty:
Capital in Anyang, then in Luoyang (770BC)
Warring state
Qin found the first empire in 221BC
Unified the north and much of the south under a single rule for the first time
Built the Great Wall to limit the raid of northern nomads (e.g. Xiongnu)
Ineffective defence, but served as boundary between the irrigation-dependent north and the better watered south, and between Chinese and barbarian (i.e. non-Chinese)
Some farmers ventured north, but returned south when drier weather came
Short-lived empire; fell in 206BC
Han dynasty
New capital Chang’an near Zhou capitals
Capital moved to Luoyang in 25AD
Consolidated imperial rule
Expansion of territory
Collapse in 220AD
Political disunity
North controlled by series of non-Chinese
Sui dynasty
At the end of 6C, re-established all-China empire – the area within the modern Chinese border
Tang
Capital at Chang’an
Collapse in 907AD

Economy
Impact of the Chinese on their landscape perhaps the heaviest in the world
Due to large population, millennia of agriculture, industrialization etc
By Shang dynasty, cleared most forests in north China
6C BC iron tools made clearing land easier; central and south China also cleared
With growth in agriculture, growth in population: from 5-10 mil in Shang to 60 mil under Han
Enormous pressure on land to support the population
By Tang dynasty, north deforested, cultivated area eroded, irrigation networks silted and land forced out of use
By mid-Tang, the northwest (where the state began) so economically marginalized that most people lived in south
Needed to adjust farming techniques for the poorly soiled south
Also, other people had been living in the Yangzi and Xi valleys
neolithic cultures here had entered bronze age
Fewer evidence of these Neolithic cultures, so the picture is unclear but..
Their rice, water buffalo, tropical root crops, chickens and pigs diffused northwards
Yangzi basin still called “china’s rice bowl”
Before these reached the north, millet was the principal crop
After the fall of the Han dynasty, Chinese fled South
Deforestration and cultivation of land expanded southwards; national capitals successively moved southwards
Pre-agricultural non-chinese displaced, and Chinese and their wet-rice agriculture took over
On-going process that continues today (e.g. in Tibet)
Period of peace in Qing dynasty
At the end of 18C, traditional Chinese agriculture reached a peak of efficiency and of yields
Furthered only by the introduction of new technologies (e.g. artificial fertilizer)
Traditional system marginalized animal farming
Discouraged less productive use for land to support animals
Draft animals never raised for food; some animals raised as scavengers
In northern steppes, however, grazers (sheep and goat), camels and horses raised
Introduction of New World crops (such as maize and potatoes) in 16C
Population doubled or tripled
Deterioration of imperial government + inability to increase agricultural output further = China sunk into mass poverty and technological backwardness
Since 1949, the Communist government tried, but disastrously failed to solve these problems
Population doubled between 1949 and 1990, despite the one-child policy imposed in 1981
Famine between 1958 and 1963: over 30 mil starved to death
Though famine eliminated, food supply just barely meets the demand
Agriculture remains the heart of Chinese economy
But there is no new land to feasibly) cultivate
Potential economic resources include:
Deposits of coal, aluminum, and iron etc
oil reserves
hydroelectric potential on the Yangzi system
too expensive and immense to develop
= positive outlook
Technological lag in nearly all fields, due to self-imposed isolation from the rest of the world (from 50s to 80s)

Cities
Since at least Han times, China has had more and larger cities than any other part of the world
Urban portion of the population 10% by Qing dynasty
Ming, Qing, Han, Tang and Song capitals with population of over a million
Administration of the empire rested on hierarchy of cities:
imperial capital  provincial  regional urban centers  cities
but China remained predominantly agrarian
with industrialization (late 19C), cities grew rapidly
in northeast for mining and manufacturing industries
shanghai, as the commercial center
has no local raw material, but has water connections
other treaty ports, thanks to foreign powers
new emphasis on national-regional balance: promote urban industrial growth in poorer and more remote areas
in the Communist mode/highly centralized system, national capital Beijing grew enormously
modernizing and expanding outwards, and remains of imperial past demolished (except the Forbidden City)
major problem remains: producing enough to satisfy the needs of an immense and growing population

Rediscovering the Past
the perception of continuity with the past is crucial
historical precedents legitimize of political power or actions
rich tradition of historical and philological scholarship
traditional antiquarianism (jinxixue) continue to inform the practice of modern field archaeology (kaoguxue)

Early stages
overall:
Shang dynasty Elites collect and ritually use ancient objects
Neolithic jade from Anyang tombs predate the Shang by a millennium
Throughout the Bronze Age, paraphernalia of ancestral worship were handed down within lineages
Ritual bronzes of previous dynasty continued to be transmitted from dynasty to dynasty as tokens of sovereignty
Han dynasty: lower ranking individuals also collected antiquities
Scholarly approach
Historical documents and chronicles kept throughout Zhou dynasty
First narrative account of history composed after 4C BC
Scholarship on the past began in Han dynasty
Sima Qian’s (145-80BC) Shiji (“Records of the historian”) is the first of the official compiled history
Xu Shen’s (58-147AD) shuiwen jiezi (“discussing the graphs and explaining the characters”) is a dictionary and a key to the early stages of Chinese writings
Beginning of Chinese epigraphy

Traditional antiquarianism
During Song dynasty (AD960 to 1279), Confucius scholars focused on ritual bronzes from the past
Two catalogues: Kaogutu (“illustrations for enquiry into antiquity”) and Bogutulu (”pictorial record widely opening up antiquity”)
Accurate records of shapes, ornaments, size and inscription of bronzes and other antiquities
Valuable records because the actual objects were lost during wars
Based on these, later scholars produced specialized studies on inscriptions
Qing dynasty (1644-1911) scholars also focused on other categories of antiquities
Developed sophisticated methods of critical analysis of literature and used material, non-textual evidence in explaining passages in the classics
Concentrated on the study of individual artefacts and took little interest in aspects of ancient culture outside of the text-based scholarship
Continued influence on modern archaeology
Song classification of bronzes is useful tool

The advent of modern archaeology
Turn of 20C, discovered inscribed oracle bones near Anyang (the last capital of the Shang dynasty)
Proved the accuracy of Shang royal genealogy as given by Sima Qian
Great counterevidence against the claims of the new, iconoclastic school called yigupai (“the doubters of antiquity”)
led by Gu Jiegang (1893-1979), yigupai…
doubted the authenticity and accuracy of the classical texts
Reevaluated the entirety of the Chinese cultural tradition during the May Fourth movement of 1919
Called for new standards of proof for historical arguments
Realized the value of excavations as a means to open up new perspectives on Chinese history
1928, the first Chinese scholars trained in modern field archaeology began to work in China
Li Ji (1896-1976) and Liang Siyong (1904-54), sponsored by Academia Sinica and Institute of philology and history, directed excavations of Shang palaces and royal tombs in Anyang
Interrupted by the Japanese invasion

Early developments in prehistoric archaeology
Apart from some contributions of Japanese scholars during WW2, Chinese auspices were in charge of all serious fieldwork in the core areas of Chinese dynastic civilization
Only major contribution from a foreigner: Swedish geologist Andersson founded prehistoric archaeology in china
Discovered homo erectus fossils and conducted long-term research in Zhoukoudian
Identified neolithic sites in northern china
E.g. Yangshao
Crude excavation methods: he had geological dating methods, and little intest in cultural context of the artifacts
In 1934, the academia sinica published the first full-scale report of Chinese prehistorical site: Chengziyai in Shandong, with Longshan culture
Scholars recognized the differences between Neolithic cultures
Overall impression of early cultural diversity

From WW2 to the cultural revolution
After the war, Institute of philology and history moved to Taiwan
Mid-70s, field research began in Taiwan
Methods now heavily influenced by American trends
On the mainland, the Communist government generously sponsored archaeology
Institute of Archaeology (founded in 1950) coordinate archaeological research in the country
Permanent field stations at important sites: Anyang, capitals near Xian and Luoyang, and Erlitou
The rapid pace of construction of infrastructure (i.e. destruction of archaeological sites) imposed urgent practical demands for archaeologists
Xia Nai (1910-85) concentrated research efforts on a small number of sites in the core area of early dynasties
Aimed to establish a standard archaeological chronology
More recent sites also excavated, and extended the scope of archaeology from prehistory to 17C AD
Establishment of a uniform method of typological analysis in the 50s
Su Bingqi (1909-) adapted Swedish principles
Archaeologists and government expected that results of excavation would demonstrate the conformity of Chinese history to the Marxist Scheme of social development
But so far, results are ambiguous

From the cultural revolution to the 90s
Cultural revolution (1966-76) disrupted the progress of Chinese archaeology; all preoccupation with traditional culture became a dangerous thing to pursue
Destruction of ancient sites, etc
Post-CR: to match growing tourism, there was a new emphasis on “exhibition value” of archaeological finds, and sites were turned into tourist attractions
Economic reforms led to administrative decentralization; now with more power, provinces vied to demonstrate their own historical importance
Regional kind of centralism arose

Current outlook
With relaxation of government controls, illicit lootings of archaeological sites devastate fieldwork
Some governments ceased to support fieldwork
Archaeologists seek external help – hope for joint research

The beginnings of a settled life
Features of civilization appeared before written records began
Two large periods
Paleolithic (1.7mil to 10kya)
Period of human evolution and hunting-gathering societies
Neolithic (10 to 4kya)
Sedentary societies, agricultural lifestyle with potteries, start of social stratification
By convention, Neolithic period ends at 2kya, with the introduction of bronze vessels
How Chinese civilization grew from Neolithic period is under debate
Many distinct prehistorical cultures existed
Culture: a group of communities with similar potteries, houses, styles of burial, etc.
named after a particular site
interaction between many regions and cultures was an important factor in rise of Chinese civilization

agriculture
before food production, people were nomadic hunters and gatherers
7kya: appearance of agriculture and sedentary villages
10-7kya: evidence of pottery-making in rock shelters, such as Zenpiyan and Xianrendong
Associated with wild animal remains, possibly domesticated pigs and cultivated root crops
Period of transition; more research to be done
7-5kya: clearly agricultural villages
in north China: peiligang, Cishan
Several hundred inhabitants grew millet, hemp and cabbages, and kept domesticated animals
In south:
Grew rice, water chestnuts, pigs, water buffalo and chickens
E.g. Hemudu (5.5-4k)
Wooden houses on stilts above marshy waters
Tools indicate that the inhabitants were skilled woodworkers and bone carvers; they crafted perishable material as well
Plants and animal remains show dramatic evolutionary changes  agriculture had been practiced for a while before the occupations at these villages
Note that hunting and gathering doesn’t cease entirely
Agriculture  settled life  permanent houses  storage of food do other things in life = complexity

The development of complex societies
5-1.9kya: villages became societies with social classes
4.5kya: emergence of elite groups, as evidenced by specific ritual objects and wealth
3-2kya: important features of the Bronze Age (e.g. walled towns, bronze metallurgy, divination, etc) appear in embryonic form
1.9kya: Xia, the first bronze age dynasty appear
Neolithic period ended and dynastic period began

Early beginnings (5-3kya)
Chinese civilization developed through an interaction of diverse cultures and ideas
Comparisons of Neolithic cultures: Yangshao of Henan vs. Dawenkou of Shandong
Both are clusters of small villages with shamanistic religion

Yangshao:
E.g. Banpo and Jiangji
villages surrounded by a ditch
defence against animal and human enemies
symbolic divide between the world of the living and the world of the dead
semisubterranean round or square houses
hearths for cooking and heating
wide benches
large houses are surrounded by smaller ones
large houses may be communal
no known display of wealth or position
simple burials
small quantity of grave goods
one interesting case: remains flanked with mosaics of a tiger and a dragon
interpreted as a burial of a shaman
highly decorative pottery
earlier designs depict human figures, animals, etc
later designs depict geometric arrangements, similar to pottery designs of neighbouring cultures

Dawenkou
e.g. yedian
burials with many ornate cooking and serving vessels (such as ding, gui, and dou)
such designs are nonexistent in yangshao sites
more elaborate meals, at least during burial rituals
both rich and poor burials more elaborate
some burials have log chambers filled with burial goods
evidence of hierarchy and inequality
vatlike vessels and a range of drinking and pouring vessels
D brewed an alcoholic beverage similar to those known from the Zhou dynasty
More sophisticated ceramic tech
D vessels more frequently had appendages, such as legs and spouts
Other cultures

Hongshan of Liaoning
Jade carvings
Ritual structures, such as life-size clay figure

Liangzhu
Jade carvings, including ceremonial disks, axes, ritual tubes
Utility unclear, but probably relate to early shamanism
These objects are later seen in other cultures as well
Social stratification: graves containing jade and ceramics, human sacrifice

Later developments, 3-2kya
Neolithic cultures progressively became more similar
Local versions of vessels such as cooking tripods that originated in the eastern coast
Social hierarchy
Elaborate graves
E.g. chengzi and taosi
Some grave goods include musical instruments (which becomes important in B.A. rituals)
Regional differences remained
Longshan improved upon the Dawenkou ceramic technologies, and devised eggshell-thin potteries
High-status objects
Transition
Evidence of early oracle bones found in Longshan sites
Life becoming more violent
larger and more spearheads and arrowheads, and rammed-earth walls appear
well shaft filled with bodies
victims of raid
small metal artefacts; not yet casted for vessels